Roots Rising

The potential relationship between slavery and the Epstein files is primarily conceptual. Scholars have concluded that there is no direct historical link. However, researchers have noted important parallels, connecting both to patterns of power, exploitation, and impunity in the United States.

One significant parallel emerges from how United Nations experts characterize the crimes found in the Epstein files. They describe them as ‘sexual slavery.’ By using this language, they highlight the connection between sexual violence, exploitation, and control over women and girls.

Scholars also argued that the Epstein case reflects a broader historical pattern of human trafficking in the U.S. They point to the origins in the enslavement of Africans, where sexual exploitation by slaveholders, politicians, and even Founding Fathers was common.

Scholars emphasize that the legalized exploitation of slaves created a cultural framework that normalized such behavior. This acceptance was then transmitted across generations through social learning.

Social learning theory provides a framework for understanding how these attitudes persisted. Albert Bandura’s theory posits that individuals learn behaviors and attitudes by observing authority figures and societal norms. When slaveholders could legally exploit slaves, this taught that such behavior was acceptable. It reinforces the idea that sexual exploitation was a right and not a crime.

A racialized sexual script, as defined by sociologists, serves as a learned narrative that guides behavior. Individuals learn this script through culture, media, family, religion, and peer interaction. This sexuality script is a learned performance shaped by society.  

The sociological and psychological ‘slavery script’ created a narrative that black women’s bodies were accessible without the threat of legal consequences. Scholar Joy DeGruy argued in her book Post-Traumatic Slave Syndrome that these scripts were transmitted from one generation to the next. They outlived the institution of slavery.

Cultural Spillover Theory offers an additional explanation, suggesting that societal acceptance of violence in one context—such as legally sanctioned slavery—can extend into other domains. During slavery, permissive attitudes toward sexual exploitation took root and, despite abolition, they persisted. The attitudes and behaviors allowed during slavery didn’t end in 1865. They were blended into the larger culture.

 Slavery provided the framework that allowed men to exploit women because the victims were disposable and unimportant.    The cultural spillover theory argues that the abuse in the Epstein file is not modern but inherited through the cultural permission structure started with the Atlantic slave trade.

When consent laws were established to prohibit sexual exploitation, persistent attitudes of entitlement and impunity continued.  This attitude was passed down across generations. It created a disconnect between legal standards and actual behavior, especially among the wealthy and powerful.

Source

Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Prentice-Hall.

DeGruy Leary, J. A. (2005). Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America’s Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing. Uptone Press.

Lysova, A., & Straus, M. A. (2019). Intimate partner violence: A multinational test of cultural spillover theory. Journal of Interpersonal Violence.

By Roland McFadden

With Africa’s youth projected to account for 42% of the global population by 2030, their empowerment is crucial to the continent’s prosperity. African leaders must focus on education, job creation, entrepreneurship, and agricultural modernization to unlock this potential.

Leaders must update curricula and invest in teacher training to promote digital literacy and STEM, ensuring youth become job creators, not just employees.

Education officials must equip students with skills matching labor market needs. They must work with the private sector, artisans, innovators, and the informal economy to align curricula with market demands. Apprenticeships, internships, and school-to-work pipelines must be accessible to youth from all backgrounds.

Leaders must promote curricula emphasizing African history, languages, innovation, and problem-solving to build confidence and identity. Progress relies on giving youth knowledge rooted in African culture and history.

Education without jobs causes frustration, migration, and instability. Investing in manufacturing, agriculture, and minerals can buffer these risks. Addressing gaps in roads, power, and broadband is vital.

African youth need access to entrepreneurship programs. Policymakers and organizations should increase funding, expand mentorship, and ensure business training and affordable financing are available and monitored. Governments must support startups and training to help youth drive growth.

Modernizing agriculture is critical to creating jobs for youth. Policymakers, investors, and educators must advance modern irrigation, storage, and climate-smart technologies to raise productivity and profitability. Prioritize policies and investments to make agriculture more attractive to young Africans.

In summary, coordinated action in education, job creation, entrepreneurship, and agriculture is essential to empower Africa’s youth and drive long-term economic and social transformation.

Source

Begho, T., & Daubry, T. P. (2025). A review of the pathway to reducing youth unemployment in Sub-Saharan Africa through agriculture and agribusiness. Discover Global Society, 3, Article 81.Bridging the Gap: Education and Youth Unemployment in Africa

The 1994 Rwandan genocide exemplifies how colonial powers weaponized pseudo-science and divide-and-conquer strategies to manufacture enduring social divisions, ultimately resulting in immense human tragedy.

Before European colonization, Tutsi and Hutu lived together in relative harmony within the same community. Hutu were mainly farmers, while Tutsi were cattle herders. Economic mobility was determined by wealth, marriage, or cattle ownership. At that time, conflicts typically arose over land and were settled according to tradition, rather than through ethnic hostility. However, this system would be disrupted with the arrival of European powers.

This situation changed significantly during the 19th and 20th centuries with the arrival of German and Belgian colonizers. With this colonization came the introduction of European pseudoscientific theories used to rank races.

For example, the Hamitic Hypothesis is a racist pseudoscientific theory falsely suggesting that any advancement in Africa was made by Europeans.  

Colonial officials described Tutsi as more European-looking—taller, leaner, and lighter-skinned than most Hutu. They deemed the Tutsi naturally superior, intelligent, and capable leaders because of perceived similarities with Europeans, while viewing the Hutu as inferior and lacking leadership skills.

Belgian authorities used this theory to structure society, granting Tutsi greater access to education, government, and economic opportunities while largely excluding Hutu through stricter policies. Pseudoscience justified this inequality, enabling a divide-and-conquer strategy.

Favoritism promoted by colonial authorities deepened divisions. Hutu lacked access to resources, while Tutsi grew dependent on European support. Under Belgian rule, Rwandans were required to carry identity cards labeled as either Hutu or Tutsi, turning previously fluid distinctions into permanent categories.

The divide-and-conquer strategy intensified distinctions, causing Tutsi and Hutu to see themselves as fundamentally different, fueling tensions that contributed to the 1994 genocide.

          In summary, pseudoscientific theories like the Hamitic Hypothesis served as tools of colonial manipulation rather than scientific evidence. These colonialideologies shaped modern conflicts and deepened social divisions. The story of Rwanda illustrates how scientific claimscan be misused to justify oppression. By critically examining the sources and motives behind so-called “scientific” claims, we can better understand historical injustices and work toward building societies that actively resist oppression and division.Pseudo-Science, the Divide and Conquer strategy, and the Rwandan Genocide

The 1994 Rwandan genocide exemplifies how colonial powers weaponized pseudo-science and divide-and-conquer strategies to manufacture enduring social divisions, ultimately resulting in immense human tragedy.

Before European colonization, Tutsi and Hutu lived together in relative harmony within the same community. Hutu were mainly farmers, while Tutsi were cattle herders. Economic mobility was determined by wealth, marriage, or cattle ownership. At that time, conflicts typically arose over land and were settled according to tradition, rather than through ethnic hostility. However, this system would be disrupted with the arrival of European powers.

This situation changed significantly during the 19th and 20th centuries with the arrival of German and Belgian colonizers. With this colonization came the introduction of European pseudoscientific theories used to rank races.

For example, the Hamitic Hypothesis is a racist pseudoscientific theory falsely suggesting that any advancement in Africa was made by Europeans.  

Colonial officials described Tutsi as more European-looking—taller, leaner, and lighter-skinned than most Hutu. They deemed the Tutsi naturally superior, intelligent, and capable leaders because of perceived similarities with Europeans, while viewing the Hutu as inferior and lacking leadership skills.

Belgian authorities used this theory to structure society, granting Tutsi greater access to education, government, and economic opportunities while largely excluding Hutu through stricter policies. Pseudoscience justified this inequality, enabling a divide-and-conquer strategy.

Favoritism promoted by colonial authorities deepened divisions. Hutu lacked access to resources, while Tutsi grew dependent on European support. Under Belgian rule, Rwandans were required to carry identity cards labeled as either Hutu or Tutsi, turning previously fluid distinctions into permanent categories.

The divide-and-conquer strategy intensified distinctions, causing Tutsi and Hutu to see themselves as fundamentally different, fueling tensions that contributed to the 1994 genocide.

          In summary, pseudoscientific theories like the Hamitic Hypothesis served as tools of colonial manipulation rather than scientific evidence. These colonial ideologies shaped modern conflicts and deepened social divisions. The story of Rwanda illustrates how scientific claims can be misused to justify oppression. By critically examining the sources and motives behind so-called “scientific” claims, we can better understand historical injustices and work toward building societies that actively resist oppression.

By Roland McFadden

By Roland McFadden, January 29, 2026

Slavery was designed to strip Africans of their culture, family, and identity.  However, enslaved Africans developed strategies to maintain part of their African culture. For example,  Gullah Geechee people  located in  South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida use storytelling, songs, folktales, basket weaving, and praise houses to maintain African traditions and worldview.

In addition,  African hair braiding  was used as a tool to maintain African culture during slavery. Prior to slavery, African societies used  braiding patterns to communicate identity, including family lineage, age, marital status, spirituality, and social rank. When Africans were forcibly removed from Africa,  they maintain these traditions. Cornrow patterns were  used In South America to map escape routes or hide seeds for survival after escape. Hair braiding was a tool of resistance and freedom.

 However, cultural survival wasn’t limited to hair braiding,  African preserved their culture through food.  Okara, rice, yams, black-eyed peas  originated  in Africa. Dishes like gumbo, jambalaya, Hoppin’ john can be traced to West and Central Africa.

Beyond these methods, enslaved Africans used oral traditions to maintain their culture. They used folklores, stories, songs  and religion were used to record history and maintain values.  For example, Vodou in Haiti and Cuba helped preserved African cosmology, music and dance.

Despite efforts to ease African identity during slavery, enslaved Africans exhibited resilience by preserving African culture.. African culture continue to influence American culture today.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of the expansion of the international fast-food industry in Africa? Research finding shows that the international fast-food industry has increased obesity rates on the continent and other diseases.   However,  these industries have the potential to reduce unemployment. The growth of the fast-food business in Africa is complex; it creates health challenges, but at the same time, it creates job opportunities.

Evidence shows the rise of the fast-food industry in Africa has been linked to an increase in obesity, weight gain, and non-communicable diseases-type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, and stroke.  For example, research in South Africa found an association between the consumption of fast food and obesity and weight gain. In addition, the consumption of fast food and a sedentary lifestyle were linked to an increase in obesity and related diseases among individuals living in Kenya. Despite these factors, the international fast-food industry provides economic benefits.

The fast-food industry provides job opportunities in urban areas where other employment opportunities may be limited.  For example, in South Africa, Kentucky Fried Chicken, Nando’s, and Spur employ tens of thousands of individuals in South Africa,  Nigeria, Ghana, and Egypt. In addition, franchises provide workers with management and entrepreneurship skills. However, there remained challenges. Wages and salaries were low.  

To maximize benefits from this industry, international businessmen and the African Government officials can benefit from addressing business growth and health concerns. A strategy committed to combining the current menu with healthier diets,  such as veggie/vegan meals, increasing wages, and promoting entrepreneurship may mitigate these issues. 

By Roland McFadden, MA

Sources:

Elias C., Abraham A., et al. (2025). Prevalence of overweight/obesity and its association with

fast-food consumption among adolescents in Southern Ethiopia.

Godbharle S., et al. Al. (2024).  Processed food consumption and risk of non-communicable

Diseases (NCDs) in South Africa.

Modjadji P., et al. (2025).  Non-communicable disease burden and dietary correlates in South

Africa:  recent evidence.

Oniang’o R., et al. (2025). Africa’s contribution to global sustainable and healthy diets.

Frontiers in Nutrition (2025).

When poverty is treated as a crime instead of a public health issue, it pushes low-income Americans further into hardship—contributing to mass incarceration, housing instability, and social stigma. In his 2009 article “The Criminalization of Poverty,” Kaaryn Gustafson noted that not being able to pay fines is a strong predictor of a low-income person’s entry into the criminal justice system. Increasing financial strain, few coping resources, and limited social support often contribute to individuals committing minor offenses such as petty theft or trespassing. The American Action Forum reports that about 57 percent of incarcerated men and 72 percent of incarcerated women in the U.S. were living in poverty before their imprisonment.

Incarceration not only stops wages but also jeopardizes one’s housing. Many lose their homes while incarcerated, and relatives who remain behind may struggle to cover rent. In a study of individuals on probation, L. Jacobs found that housing insecurity was both common and a strong risk factor for recidivism. Public housing authorities and private landlords frequently refuse applicants with criminal records, forcing many ex‐offenders into shelters or onto the streets, and an unstable address makes finding work even harder.

Beyond these material barriers, a powerful but invisible blockade of social stigma keeps formerly incarcerated people in poverty. Employers often screen out candidates with past convictions. In a 2003 study, Devah Pager found that White applicants with a criminal record were only half as likely to receive a callback as those without one, and Black applicants with a record received almost none.

Tackling these problems demands policy changes. Eliminating criminal‐history questions from job applications can open doors to employment. Counseling, skills training, and mentorship programs help build resilience and counteract internalized stigma. Finally, guaranteeing stable housing and job opportunities for people reentering society not only reduces recidivism but also offers a genuine pathway out of poverty.

By Roland McFadden, MA

Source:

American Action Forum. “The Economic Effects of Welfare Reform.” 2023. Americanactonforum.org.

Gustafson, Kaaryn. Cheating Welfare: Public Assistance and the

Criminalization of Poverty: New York: New York University Press, 2011.

L. Jacob, The Changing Face of Public Assistance, 2022, Brookings Institution.

Devah Pager, “The Mark of a Criminal Record,” American Journal of Sociology (2003).How Poverty and Incarceration Shape Housing Instability

Should the descendants of enslaved Africans in the United States receive reparations for the historical injustice of slavery and the persistent racial discrimination they face today? I contend that the United States bears a moral duty to compensate those whose families suffered under slavery and its enduring legacy, much as it did for Japanese Americans interned during World War II. Economist William A. Darity of Duke University has argued that such reparations are essential to narrowing the racial wealth gap created by centuries of government-sanctioned discrimination.

A 2023 Federal Reserve report highlights a stark gap that remains between Black and White wealth accumulation. According to the report, the median wealth of white families is roughly six times greater than that of Black families. Between 2019 and 2022, although African American earnings rose, the disparity in net worth continued to grow. In 2022, the median household wealth for white families stood at about $285,000, compared to just $44,900 for African American households. This is not coincidental but the product of both historic and ongoing barriers to building intergenerational wealth.

Slavery lies at the heart of this gap. Enslaved people generated immense profits but were forbidden to own any of it. Slaveholders treated human beings as collateral, using them to secure loans, buy more land, and expand plantations. By the 1850s, the monetary value of enslaved people in the U.S. exceeded the combined worth of all railroads, factories, and banks. Cotton—picked entirely by forced labor—became the nation’s most lucrative export, enriching Southern planters, Northern textile mills, financiers, and European manufacturers alike.

Banks like JPMorgan Chase and Wachovia further profited by financing slave traders, accepting enslaved people as collateral, and collecting repayments when slaves were bought and sold. Insurance companies such as New York Life and Aetna underwrote voyages, reimbursing owners for enslaved lives lost or thrown overboard—as in the infamous 1781 Zong massacre, when insurers paid claims after 130 Africans were cast into the sea. These institutions funneled vast sums into the financial system, creating generational wealth for white Americans.

After emancipation, the advantages of slavery were largely preserved. White landowners retained vast estates, while freed Black people were systematically blocked from land ownership. Under the 1862 Homestead Act, millions of acres were granted to white settlers; formerly enslaved individuals were largely excluded. Over the following decades, Jim Crow laws at the state and local levels further entrenched white supremacy, denying African Americans equal economic, educational, and political opportunities well into the mid-20th century.

Despite these injustices, opposition to reparations remains strong. A 2002 poll found only 4 percent of white Americans supported monetary reparations, compared to 67 percent of African Americans. Critics often point to gaps in historical records as a barrier to identifying eligible recipients. Yet a wealth of sources—post-1870 U.S. Census data, Freedmen’s Bureau documents, plantation archives, church and cemetery registers—can help trace lineage back to those who were enslaved.

These records have already enabled many African Americans to document their ancestry. America has a moral responsibility, the same it has shown in redressing other historic wrongs, to provide reparations by helping to close the racial wealth gap that slavery and discrimination created and still perpetuate.

By Roland McFadden, MA

Sources:

Ray, R. & Perry, A. (2020). Why we need reparations for Black Americans. Brookings Institution.

Darity Jr., W., Craemer, T., Berry, D. R., & Francis, D. (2024). Black

Reparations in the United States, 2024: An Introduction, RSF, 10(2), 1-28.

Hair braiding evolved into a powerful tool of resistance against enslavement across the Americas. In her groundbreaking work “Freedom Braids” (2024), researcher Monique Duncan documents how enslaved women in Colombia encoded escape routes within intricate braiding patterns. The community of San Basilio became particularly known for cornrow designs that subtly mapped rivers, safe houses, and freedom paths—knowledge invisible to enslavers yet clear to those who understood the code.

These braiding traditions transcended mere communication. When enslavers deliberately separated tribal members to prevent rebellion, hairstyles became silent identifiers of ethnic origin and cultural belonging. Braiding sessions transformed into sacred gatherings where stories, songs, and ancestral wisdom flowed freely between generations. This embodiment of Ubuntu—the philosophy that “I am because we are”—strengthened community bonds even under brutal conditions.

The legacy continues today, with braiding practices throughout the Caribbean and United States standing as living symbols of African heritage, cultural resilience, and collective memory.

Reference:

Duncan, M. (2024). Freedom Braids. HarperCollins.

By Roland McFadden, MA